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Oral hygiene in Namibia: A case of chewing sticks

Abstruse

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Chewing sticks have served equally the primary course of dental treat rural communities in resource-poor settings for millennia. They are i of the virtually important under-researched, not-timber forest products in Namibia. This review provides an overview of plants that are used as chewing sticks in Namibia and highlights pharmacological as well equally phytochemical studies conducted on them.

Aim of the study

This review aims to present a summary of studies that have been done on the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, biological activity too as bear witness on the scientific validation and geographical distribution of chewing sticks in Namibia. It likewise highlights inquiry gaps and provides an impetus for the scientific investigations of these constitute species.

Textile and methods

Literature searches using keywords including oral hygiene, chewing sticks, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, antimicrobial, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory activities and toxicity studies, chewing sticks, and distribution in Namibia on various electronic search engines was conducted.

Results

Of the 41 plant species identified, Cordia sinensis Lam., Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev. and Harpagophytum zeyheri Decne. are used for both gargling and as mouthwash. The plant families Fabacae, Ebenaceae , and Burseraceae account for 22.0%, 12.two%, and seven.30% of found species recorded equally chewing sticks in Namibia respectively. This study revealed a significant relationship between found family and scientific validation. Species belonging to Burseraceae, Apocynaceae, Montiniaceae, and Cucurbitaceae families accept just been partially validated. The Kunene region, home to the Ovahimba ethnic group, had the highest proportion (87.8%) of chewing sticks species compared to other regions.

Determination

This review revealed that virtually of the plants used as chewing sticks in Namibia crave an in-depth pharmacological and phytochemical investigation every bit deduced from the paucity of literature on the therapeutic methods, mechanisms of action, efficacy, toxicity, and clinical relevance of these species.

Introduction

Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping one's mouth make clean and complimentary of disease, by regular brushing and cleaning the surface, in between the teeth and the whole mouth crenel. Poor oral hygiene has been associated with an increased take chances of middle disease, stroke, pneumonia, and oral cancer (Oji and Chukwuneke, 2012; Stein and Henry, 2009). Skillful oral hygiene is essential for preventing tartar build-up which causes plaque and calculus formation. Plaque forming bacteria are the main causes of oral infections, mucilage illness, and caries (Bairwa et al., 2012). Although diet plays a major role in the charge per unit of plaque germination, the practice of dental hygiene is also important. Careful and frequent brushing of teeth is needed to foreclose dental caries and other periodontal diseases which business relationship for near tooth loss and halitosis. While tooth-brushing with toothpaste is arguably the most common method of oral hygiene in developed nations, a large portion of the population in Africa still uses chewing sticks (Wu et al., 2001). In many African countries, chewing sticks are commonly used for cleaning teeth, to prevent cavities, eliminate bad odour, remove plague equally well as strengthen tooth roots and gums. Although chewing stick users merits that the use of chewing sticks strengthens the roots of the teeth, no study has been done to testify this. Availability of found species, personal preference, and perceived effectiveness plays a role in the method of selection for dental hygiene, and reasons such every bit no-cost and ease of admission are mentioned among chewing stick users as factors influencing the use of chewing sticks over toothbrush and toothpaste method (Nyambe et al., 2018). The elapsing of and proper use of chewing sticks is of import as studies reported on gingival recession and attachment loss are among the side furnishings due to excessive and improper apply (Eid et al., 1990).

Chewing sticks are made from the carve up stems, twigs, and roots of several found species (Blay, 2004). Plants with a high fiber content in their stems and branches are ordinarily used as they easily form "brush" ends. The roots or twigs are cut into size to let manageable movements when brushing teeth. Then the ends are chewed to loosen the fibers forming a rough "brush". The use of plants in oral health is however not limited to chewing sticks. In this review, chewing sticks are divers as establish species used for teeth cleaning, either every bit a toothbrush or in any other form that can remove dirt from the surface of teeth. A variety of plant species are besides used for gargling, mouthwash, dental floss and to cure toothache and infections (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000). Chewing on these sticks also increases saliva production, which acts equally a natural mouthwash that rinses abroad bacteria and creates an inhospitable surround for them to flourish. A report aimed at evaluating the mechanical and chemical cleaning effectiveness of chewing sticks from Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem) compared to the transmission toothbrush, revealed the superior antiplaque activity of chewing sticks and recommended the latter as an effective culling to manual tooth brushing (Malik et al., 2014). According to the 2000 Earth Wellness Organization (WHO) Consensus Report on Oral Hygiene, chewing sticks are an effective tool for oral hygiene (WHO, 2000). Plants, therefore, have a very effective and of import role to play in oral hygiene. However, in southern Africa, the employ of chewing sticks has declined, even though they are sold in informal markets. This review aims to present a summary of studies that have been done on the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, biological activity as well as show on the scientific validation and geographical distribution of chewing sticks in Namibia. It further aims to highlight research gaps and to provide an impetus for the scientific investigations of these establish species. The following questions are to be addressed: (a) Are chewing sticks restricted to particular plant families in Namibia? (b) What scientific evidence has been presented to support the employ of these found species for oral hygiene? (c) What are the trends in Namibian chewing sticks inquiry over the by 35?

Section snippets

Data collection

The following keywords were used to acquit literature searches using various electronic search engines: oral hygiene, chewing sticks, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, antimicrobial, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory activities and toxicity studies, and distribution in Namibia. Literature consulted includes papers published in international journals, reports from international, regional, and national organizations, conference papers, books, theses, websites, and other grayness literature.

Plant families used equally chewing sticks in Namibia

Analysis of data on chewing stick species in Namibia showed that there are 21 plant families and 41 species from which chewing sticks are sourced. From these the Fabaceae family accounts for 22% of all the plant species recorded every bit chewing sticks in Namibia, while Ebeneceae accounts for 12% and Burseraceae 7% (Fig. 1). The other families account for 2–5% of chewing sticks. Ebenaceae are used exclusively as toothbrushes whereas some species in Fabaceae are used both equally toothbrushes and

Determination

This review gives an account, albeit limited, of the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and biological activities of 41 plant species identified and used every bit chewing sticks in Namibia. Information technology highlighted the lack of information on oral hygiene-related biological activities and, more specifically, antimicrobial activity of extracts of these plants against oral pathogens. Also, the identification of bioactive phytochemicals present in the found parts used is underexplored. Consequently, the

Writer contribution

M.Grand. Nyambe conceived the idea and took the lead in writing the review. Eastward.G. Kwembeya, Chiliad. Lisao and Thousand. Nyambe did a comprehensive literature review for different sections and put the information together. R. Hans reviewed the manuscript and added relevant information from other references. All authors contributed to structuring the review, data analysis and approved the concluding manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the National Botanical Research Found of Namibia for providing access to their library collections, the National Herbarium of Namibia database as well as the database of the Survey of Economic Plants for Barren and Semi-arid Lands (SEPASAL).

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